David Hume - Naturalistic Metaethics, Politics, and Psychology :: Philosophy David Hume

David Hume - Naturalistic Metaethics, Politics, and Psychology Unique: According to the perspectives communicated in this paper, impacts inconsequential to the finishes of Immanuel Kant and G. E. Moore regarding what they saw as the proper establishment for moral frameworks appears to have been grinding away in the responses of both to the prior reactions of David Hume. Expanding on an ongoing gathering with Hume in a bar on Princes Street in Edinburgh, I build up the recommendation that both Kant and Moore were faithful to customary ideas of an intuited, non-prudential reason for moral orders. Kant, by his request that any profound quality connected uniquely to speculative objectives can't be genuinely good, and Moore by his refusal to see the vacancy of his set great as essentially great which he felt must be kept liberated from any ruining reference to certifiable prudential constituents, along these lines bolster the establishment of moral frameworks in an inward, unanalyzable good motivation. What's more, they do as such in compliance to du ties that precede their ethical ways of thinking. I additionally guarantee that Hume has been misconstrued in that he didn't intend to restrict the naturalistic establishing of good frameworks in his well known explanation detaching is-articulations from should proclamations; what he truly proposed was to bring up the illogic of moralists who inappropriately claim to determine unmitigated or intuited moral objectives from genuine world is-explanations while denying any prudentiality or a posteriority to the exchange. Since both keep up that this basic inward good drive must be autonomous of prudential contemplations in settling on moral choices and decisions, Kant and Moore contradict naturalistic moral frameworks which, as J.S. Mill's, recommend this-common government assistance and satisfaction are in enormous part concurrent with the genuine significance of ethical quality. Their position, thusly, places both of these defenders of intuitionist metaethics at chances with the guide line of political social democrats that a decent good framework must place common fulfillments and satisfaction above dutifulness to any putative higher moral law and its intuited objectives. I sat down to chat with David Hume one blustery night as of late in a bar in Edinburgh, overâ€naturallyâ€kippers with earthy colored bread and a 16 ounces of strong or two. He let me in on a mystery and gave me leave to murmur it thusly to a couple of companions. Which is the reason I wrote down this record of our gathering and am introducing it to you here. Recollect what that incredible investigator wrote to get under way the line of reasoning that finished in G.

Fundamental Passive Design Principles Construction Essay Example For Students

Crucial Passive Design Principles Construction Essay The structure and building division is a cardinal part for feasible turn of events. The structure, utilization and annihilation of buildings produce critical cultural and monetary advantages to society. Development engineerings have improved the structures we work or live in and gracefully benefits for the earth and the building owners. As opposed to building structures for curious climes, designing has lead us in the way of bring forthing vitality proficient structures and providing dormant plans for practical houses. This empowers us to make things happen the clime we live in and use these strategies to benefit or structures or places regards to the earth. Given that a mean house goes on for in excess of 60 mature ages, providing latent plan rules for developers or refinishers, the incorporating of inert structure is a savvy contributing pick as part of future-sealing your place and doing it execute all the more economically as it can usefully respond to a site s predominant climat ic conditions. The investigation talks about the inert structure decides and related data that can better family solace, liveability and retirement funds in every one of the diverse clime zones. It presents a summarize of dormant structure builds and advantages that can be utilized to help in planing another house, or changing or purchasing a bing house. 2.0 FUNDAMENTAL PASSIVE DESIGN PRINCIPLES Latent plan is a cardinal trait of a practical house. There are six plan decides that are utilized in the structure to achieve manageability these are talked about arranged by priority ; direction, airing, shadowing, insularity, thermic mass and stuffs ( J.W. 1975 ) . Outline1 Page 1 of 92 2.2.13 Openings4 2.2.25 Cross airing6 Page 2 of 97 2.2.38 Roof limitless and shading material9 2.2.410 Cathedral ceilings11 Page 3 of 912 Page 4 of 913 2.6.114 Windows/glass15 2.6.216 Skylights17 2.6.318 Solar arbors19 Page 5 of 920 Page 6 of 921 Page 7 of 922 Page 8 of 923 Page 9 of 9 Page 1 of 9 2.1-ORIENTATION House direction is the most cardinal dormant plan rule as it fundamentally influences the house s solace and vitality open introduction. Perceive how the program interfaces with the site, as great direction builds the advantages of sun based dish, chilling breezes, summer concealing and air current insurance. ( J.W. 1975 ) On the off chance that potential, its prescribed houses are to be orientated so their western side squares out the warmth from the low summer Sun, and their south-western side goes about as a cushion against western air flows. As a general guideline, window nation on the north-bound divider ought to be 10-25 for every centum of the floor nation of the room so the room can determine fit dish to winter Sun . ( J.W. 1975 ) The southern side of the houses ought to for the most part be concealed, as this can gracefully some bearable out-of-entryway limitless in summer. Anyway it ought to other than be perceived that this limitless can once in a while obtain cool on winter yearss, so plan this endless for adaptable use. In Tropical climatic zones, the early afternoon summer Sun strikes the southern substance of the house, while noontime winter Sun is toward the North. 2.2-VENTILATION All through Australia s summer, a definitive spot comfort reason for existing is to populate in a house so great ventilated and concealed that it would resemble sitting under a major tree on a blistering twenty-four hours where the breeze can experience unencumbered. Such a develop can be consolidated into a house through utilizing the plan attributes introduced beneath: 2.2.1 Openings As Windowss and entryway holes get breezes, the more adaptable the opening the better its workable for airing ( J.W. 1975 ) . Louvers and overhang Windowss can coordinate the breeze down into the living limitless of a room. They need non completely be glass, as wood louvers give obscurity each piece great as breeze ( wanted to take from manor lumbers ) . 2.2.2 Cross airing When the breeze is inside the house it ought to have the option to transition through to the opposite side each piece continuous as could be expected under the circumstances. Cautious arranging of suites is required, for example, ( any place conceivable ) two Windowss in each resting space to gracefully better cross airing. Attempt to turn up entryways close to one another as this can other than help with cross airing. As air moves upward when warmed, flexible transoms or blowholes are prescribed over interior entryway holes to take the tourist roll uping at roof degree in summer ( Milne Geoff.2005 ) . They other than should have the option to be shut to chop down warmth misfortune in winter. Vents situated in level roofs in the passage and kitchen can flexibly an additional favorable position, each piece long as the rooftop is sufficiently ventilated. This permits the warmth assembled at roof degree to be removed up into the rooftop limitless. Roof blowholes in Sub-tropical climes o ther than should be fixed in winter to keep up the warmth in. ( Claudia. 2004 ) Page 2 of 9 2.2.3 Rooftop unbounded and shading material Successful rooftop airing can take this warmth develop through holes in the rooftop s overhang and the game plan of edge blowholes. The edge can be vented in a figure of ways. The first is a short peak at the edge giving required enduring security and enduring airing. The clearstory configuration other than offers a possibility for edge venting . ( Milne Geoff.2005 ) . The openable venting nation can be extraordinarily expanded, however the hole ought to non be situated towards the late spring Sun as that could let undesirable sun powered expansion. An answer for this activity when using metal deck material is to just flexibly a second covering of sheeting at the edge, close to bounty to the central rooftop to thwart downpour come ining yet adequate to let warmed air inside to escape. A light-hued rooftop is other than a decent preferred position. As a bitumen course promptly ingests heat on account of its shading material, a dull rooftop does likewise. A light-shaded rooftop can reflect undesirable warmth before it even gets into the rooftop vast. While it isn't right to suggest that all rooftops ought to be white, those with a light-hued rooftop will chop down the warming limit of their place s rooftop unending, and consequently conceivably elevating solace degrees and downplaying vitality requests. 2.2.4 House of God roofs House of God roofs are calculated, with roof sheets fixed to the base of shies away or scissor supports. They are perfect in hot climes in the event that they are planned conventionally. Undesirable warmth from the livable nations ascends off from the house as it warms the air and aggregates at the most elevated purpose of the roof. On the off chance that the warmed air is non permitted to escape it will at last make full the room, so it is key to relinquish the warmth accumulated at the edge, either into a ventilated rooftop unending or straight outside through divider holes put only beneath the most noteworthy bit of the roof . ( Milne Geoff.2005 ) . House of prayer roofs as often as possible have little or no rooftop unending that would for the most part help to chop down warmth streams between the rooftop and the roof, so it is other than of import to gracefully great rooftop and roof insularity. Understudy EssayHomeowners other than have tranquility of head given that their place has more prominent vitality efficiencies, it will hold a lower nursery gas part through the abatement in ignition of petroleum products for power coevals as it performs all the more responsively to its prevailing clime. 4.0 OTHER FEATURES OF SUSTAINABLE HOUSING DESIGN Manageable building changes, for example, sunlight based hot H2O frameworks, water reinforced battle vehicles and sun based vitality flexibly, can fundamentally supplement a latently structured house. These attributes are prescribed to be incorporated as segment of a consolidate structure reaction as they can together better the efficiencies and open introduction of a progressively feasible house. Page 6 of 9 An increasingly reasonable spot can coordinate an extent of attributes to represent vitality and H2O gracefully and ingestion, handiness, dark water and dark water frameworks, stormwater bearing ( downplaying cut and make full nearby to keep common seepage structures and confinement bowls ) , and preventing soil disintegration/dregs and nutritious run-off to our conduits, and biodiversity ( through keeping significant trees ) ( Salmon, C. 1999 ) . 5.0 Decision The examination uncovers how cardinal dormant structures give us procedures and techniques that advance a supportable house, revealing such things as airing, shadowing, insularity, thermic mass and stuffs all play a part in a manageable spot. Other than foregrounding the advantages of maintainable spot, going cost-effective over clasp through one-year operational retirement funds, and consequently are all the more minimal effort in the more drawn out term. Other than revealing through advantages of inert plans improved solace and vitality effectiveness can be gotten by incorporating idle structure rules. The investigation gives strategies and procedures to developers and refinishers on bring forthing vitality proficient and maintainable structures. The advantages for owners of spots with latent structure incorporate lower vitality expenses and determining a more noteworthy satisfaction in the clime they live in when contrasted and tenants of ordinary houses. 6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS Detached plan is a cardinal part of reasonable building. It expects to augment comfort for individuals populating in a spot while downplaying vitality utilization and different effects on the earth. This implies doing the majority of free, regular beginnings of vitality, for example, the Sun and the air current, to gracefully warming, chilling, and airing to loan to dependable vitality utilization. These suggestions investigate contemplations, arrangements and advantages to detached structure when sing working in a particular clime. Uncovers house direction is the most cardinal idle structure rule as it fundamentally influences the house s solace and vitality open introduction. Incorporating insularity plans can assist with chopping down the impacts of these most extreme temperatures as it gives more noteworthy solace degrees Providing suitable use of thermic mass all through your place

The Story of Feral Child Genie Wiley

The Story of Feral Child Genie Wiley History and Biographies Print The Story of Feral Child Genie Wiley The Shocking Story of the Famous Wild Child Raised in Isolation By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on June 30, 2019 Imgorthand / Vetta / Getty Images More in Psychology History and Biographies Psychotherapy Basics Student Resources Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming In This Article Table of Contents Expand Genie’s Background Teaching Genie Critical Period Language Progress Arguments Over Care The Beginning of the End Where Is Genie Today? View All Back To Top There have been a number of cases of feral children raised in social isolation with little or no human contact. Few have captured public and scientific attention like that of a  young girl called Genie. She spent almost her entire childhood locked in a bedroom, isolated and abused for over a decade. Genies case was one of the first to put the critical period theory to the test. Could a child reared in utter deprivation and isolation develop language? Could a nurturing environment make up for a horrifying past? Genie’s Background Genies story came to light on November 4, 1970, in Los Angeles, California. A social worker discovered the 13-year old girl after her mother sought out services. The social worker soon discovered that the girl had been confined to a small room, and an investigation by authorities quickly revealed that the child had spent most of her life in this room, often tied to a potty chair. The girl was given the name Genie in her case files to protect her identity and privacy. The case name is Genie. This is not the persons real name, but when we think about what a genie is, a genie is a creature that comes out of a bottle or whatever but emerges into human society past childhood. We assume that it really isnt a creature that had a human childhood,” explained Susan Curtiss in a 1997 Nova documentary  titled, Secrets of the Wild Child. Both parents were charged with abuse, but Genies father committed suicide the day before he was due to appear in court, leaving behind a note stating that the world will never understand. Genies life prior to her discovery was one of utter deprivation. She spent most of her days tied naked to her potty chair only able to move her hands and feet. When she made noise, her father would beat her. Her father, mother, and older brother rarely spoke to her. The rare times her father did interact with her, it was to bark or growl. The story of her case soon spread, drawing attention from both the public and the scientific community. The case was important, said psycholinguist and author Harlan Lee, because our morality doesn’t allow us to conduct deprivation experiments with human beings;  these unfortunate people are all we have to go on. With so much interest in her case, the question became what should be done with her. A team of psychologists and language experts began the process of rehabilitating Genie. Teaching Genie The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) provided funding for scientific research on Genie’s case. I think everybody who came in contact with her was attracted to her. She had a quality of somehow connecting with people, which developed more and more but was present, really, from the start. She had a way of reaching out without saying anything, but just somehow by the kind of look in her eyes, and people wanted to do things for her,” said psychologist David Rigler, part of the Genie team.?? Her rehabilitation team also included graduate student Susan Curtiss and psychologist James Kent. Upon her initial arrival at UCLA, the team was met with a girl who weighed just 59 pounds and moved with a strange bunny walk. She often spat and was unable to straighten her arms and legs. Silent, incontinent, and unable to chew, she initially seemed only able to recognize her own name and the word sorry. After assessing Genies emotional and cognitive abilities, Kent described her as the most profoundly damaged child Ive ever seen … Genies life is a wasteland. Her silence and inability to use language made it difficult to assess her mental abilities, but on tests, she scored at about the level of a 1-year-old. She soon began to make rapid progression in specific areas, quickly learning how to use the toilet and dress herself. Over the next few months, she began to experience more developmental progress  but remained poor in areas such as language. She enjoyed going out on day trips outside of the hospital  and explored her new environment with an intensity that amazed her caregivers and strangers alike. Curtiss suggested that Genie had a strong ability to communicate nonverbally, often receiving gifts from total strangers who seemed to understand the young girls powerful need to explore the world around her. Critical Period and Language Acquisition Part of the reason why Genies case fascinated psychologists and linguists so deeply was that it presented a unique opportunity to study a hotly contested debate about language development. Nativists believe that the capacity for language is innate, while empiricists suggest that it is environmental variables that play a key role??. Essentially, it boils down to the age-old nature versus nurture debate. Does genetics or environment play a greater role in developing language? Nativist Noam Chomsky suggested that acquiring language could not be fully explained by learning alone. Instead, he proposed that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), an innate ability to understand the principles of language. Once exposed to language, the LAD allows children to learn the language at a remarkable pace. Linguist Eric Lenneberg suggests that like many other human behaviors, the ability to acquire language is subject to critical periods. A critical period is a limited span of time during which an organism is sensitive to external stimuli and capable of acquiring certain skills. According to Lenneberg, the critical period for language acquisition lasts until around age 12. After the onset of puberty, he argued, the organization of the brain becomes set and no longer able to learn and utilize language in a fully functional manner.?? Genies case presented researchers with a unique opportunity. If given an enriched learning environment, could she overcome her deprived childhood and learn language even though she had missed the critical period? If she could, it would suggest that the critical period hypothesis of language development was wrong. If she could not, it would indicate that Lennebergs theory was correct. Language Progress Despite scoring at the level of a 1-year-old upon her initial assessment, Genie quickly began adding new words to her vocabulary. She started by learning single words and eventually began putting two words together much the way young children do. Curtiss began to feel that Genie would be fully capable of acquiring language. After a year of treatment, she even started putting three words together occasionally. In children going through normal language development, this stage is followed by what is known as a language explosion. Children rapidly acquire new words and begin putting them together in novel ways. Unfortunately, this never happened for Genie. Her language abilities remained stuck at this stage and she appeared unable to apply grammatical rules and use language in a meaningful way. At this point, her progress leveled off and her acquisition of new language halted. While Genie was able to learn some language after puberty, her inability to use grammar (which Chomsky suggests is what separates human language from animal communication) offers evidence for the critical period hypothesis. Of course, Genies case is not so simple. Not only did she miss the critical period for learning language, but  she was also horrifically abused. She was malnourished and deprived of cognitive stimulation for most of her childhood. Researchers were also never able to fully determine if Genie suffered from pre-existing cognitive deficits. As an infant, a pediatrician had identified her as having some type of mental delay. So researchers were left to wonder whether Genie had suffered from cognitive deficits caused by her years of abuse or if she had been born with some degree of mental retardation. Arguments Over Genie’s Care Psychiatrist Jay Shurley helped assess Genie after she was first discovered, and he noted that since situations like hers were so rare, she quickly became the center of a battle between the researchers involved in her case. Arguments over the research and the course of her treatment soon erupted. Genie occasionally spent the night at the home of Jean Butler, one of her teachers. After an outbreak of measles, Genie was quarantined at her teachers home. Butler soon became protective and began restricting access to Genie. Other members of the team felt that Butlers goal was to become famous from the case, at one point claiming that Butler had called herself the next Anne Sullivan, the teacher famous for helping Helen Keller learn to communicate. Eventually, Genie was removed from Butlers care and went to live in the home of psychologist David Rigler, where she remained for the next four years. Despite some difficulties, she appeared to do well in the Rigler household. She enjoyed listening to classical music on the piano and loved to draw, often finding it easier to communicate through drawing than through other methods. The Beginning of the End NIMH withdrew funding in 1974, due to the lack of scientific findings. Linguist Susan Curtiss had found that while Genie could use words, she could not produce grammar. She could not arrange these words in a meaningful way, supporting the idea of a critical period in language development. Riglers research was disorganized and largely anecdotal. Without funds to continue the research and care for Genie, she was moved from the Riglers care. In 1975, Genie returned to live with her birth mother. When her mother found the task too difficult, Genie was moved through a series of foster homes, where she was often subjected to further abuse and neglect. Genie’s birth mother then sued the Children’s Hospital of Los Angeles and the research team, charging them with excessive testing. While the lawsuit was eventually settled, it raised important questions about the treatment and care of Genie. Did the research interfere with the girls therapeutic treatment? Genie’s situation continued to worsen. After spending a significant amount of time in foster homes, she returned to Children’s Hospital. Unfortunately, the progress that had occurred during her first stay had been severely compromised by the subsequent treatment she received in foster care. Genie was afraid to open her mouth and had regressed back into silence. Where Is Genie Today? Today, Genie lives in an adult foster care home somewhere in southern California. Little is known about her present condition, although an anonymous individual hired a private investigator to track her down in 2000 and described her as happy. This contrasts with the account of psychiatrist Jay Shurley who visited her on her 27th and 29th birthdays and characterized her as largely silent, depressed, and chronically institutionalized. What do we take away from this really sad story? asked Harlan Lee in the NOVA documentary. Look, theres an ethical dilemma in this kind of research. If you want to do rigorous science, then Genies interests are going to come second some of the time. If you only care about helping Genie, then you wouldnt do a lot of the scientific research. So, what are you going to do? To make matters worse, the two roles, scientist and therapist, were combined in one person, in her case. So, I think future generations are going to study Genies case not only for what it can teach us about human development but also for what it can teach us about the rewards and the risks of conducting the forbidden experiment.

Ministers Black Veil Assessment - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1126 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/07/01 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: The Minister's Black Veil Essay Did you like this example? While Mr. Hooper gives a sermon on concealed sin, the parishioners _____. * A. feel he is looking into their souls Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Ministers Black Veil Assessment" essay for you Create order B. strain to hear his muffled voice C. wonder what sin he has committed D. think about their neighbors sins Read the following quotation. What does it reveal about the symbol of the black veil? But even amid his grief, Mr. Hooper smiled to think that only a material emblem had separated him from happiness, though the horrors which it shadowed forth must be drawn darkly between the fondest of lovers. * A. The veil has power because it symbolizes something darker. B. The veil, and not sin, separates him from his happiness. C. The veil symbolizes the sins that fill Elizabeths soul. D. All lovers keep secrets, and the veil is a symbol of Mr. Hoopers secret love. What does this quotation about Mr. Hooper reveal about the possible social constraints of Puritan culture? . . . a man apart from men, shunned in their health and joy, but ever summoned to their aid in moral anguish. A. Sins are ignored during celebrations. B. Men will not admit when they are sick. * C. Anguish causes people to turn to ministers. D. Secrets are present in both happy and sad times. How does Mr. Hoopers veil affect the wedding? A. It makes everyone leave. * B. It ruins the event. C. It makes the event more fun, like a costume party. D. It causes a fight. Why does Mr. Hooper leave the wedding party early? * A. He catches sight of himself in a mirror. B. The wedding has become too wild. C. It is time for him to go home and pray. D. The bride and groom ask him to leave. What characteristic of Puritan culture do these lines most likely suggest? Beloved and respected as you are, there may be whispers that you hide your face under the consciousness of secret sin. A. Secret sins were the only topic of conversation. B. People are interested in only the minister. C. Ministers are considered beyond discussion. * D. People discuss the private lives of everyone. What meaning does the following quotation most likely reveal about the symbol of the black veil? All through life that piece of crepe had hung between him and the world: it had separated him from cheerful brotherhood and womans love, and kept him in that saddest of all prisons, his own heart. . . . A. Some people have an everlasting sadness in them. B. Puritans have happy relationships. C. People spend time only with happy people. * D. Sin can stop relationships from forming. Mr. Hooper most likely says that everyone wears a black veil because he _____. * A. believes that everyone is sinful B. wishes people could be more honest C. thinks people are beyond redemption D. wants to encourage suspicion Which is a value that the Puritans held. A. They understood that no one is sinless. * B. They tried to be sinless. C. They believed ministers were sinners too. D. They were forgiving of all, even ministers. Symbols often reveal the theme of a short story. What does the black veil represent? A. Love for all humans, even when they are imperfect. B. Respect for ministers, even when they are sinful. * C. Sin that separates a person from others and God. D. Hatefulness in everyone. Table 1 Table of Test Specifications Standard: RL3 Analyze the impact of the authors choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of a story. Title of Unit of Study: The Ministers Black Veil Grade Level: 11 Content Area: Language Arts Total Points: 10 Type of Items: Multiple Choice Blooms Taxonomy Cognitive Levels Number/ Percent of Items Per Level Objectives Multiple-Choice Level: Remembering Level: Understand Level: Analyzing Total/Percent When presented with a story, imagine what it would be like to live in that setting with those activities taking place alongside those characters by providing three accurate examples. 2 (20%) 2 (20%) When presented with a story, identify the correct meaning of the authors words and plot development with 80% accuracy. 3 (30%) 3 (30%) When presented with a story, analyze the word choices and techniques that build plot development, and use the conclusions to make correct inferences with 80% accuracy. 2 (20%) 3 (30%) 5 (50%) Total: 3 (30%) 4 (40%) 3 (30%) 10/100% Table 2 Curriculum Map Standard: RL3 Analyze the impact of the authors choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of a story. Learning Objectives: 1) When presented with a story, imagine what it would be like to live in that setting with those activities taking place alongside those characters by providing three examples. 2) When presented with a story, identify the correct meaning of the authors words and plot development with 80% accuracy. 3) When presented with a story, analyze the word choices and techniques that build plot development, and use the conclusions to make correct inferences with 80% accuracy. Grade Level: 11 Content Area: Language Arts Unit Title: The Ministers Black Veil Length of Unit: 1 week Description of Unit of Study: Students will study a one-week unit on Nathaniel Hawthornes The Ministers Black Veil and will analyze the impact of the authors choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of his story. Students will build upon pre-assessment knowledge, new vocabulary, and knowledge of symbol use before reading the short story. During the story, students will imagine what it was like to live as a character in the story and analyze the impact of the use of symbols and other word choices/techniques. Content and/or Essential Questions Knowledge and Skills Suggested Assessments Activities Resources 1) What word choices and techniques build the plot? 2) What do the authors words mean and how can I relate them to myself? 3) What knowledge and skills do I need in order to see how these words are developing the plot? 4) How will my knowledge of the use of a symbol in Hawthornes writing affect my perceptions of symbols used today? 5) What would it be like to live in this storys setting, with these activities happening around these characters? 6) What inferences can I make about the impact of these word choices? How can I apply this new literature knowledge today? Self-knowledge Cultural traits of Puritans Vocabulary Plot development Symbolism Unity of effect Ways to make inferences Pre-test: Day 1 Formative assessment: Days 2 4 Performance task: Symbolism/Inferences stations Summative, end-of-unit assessment: Day 5 Student Reflection: Day 5 Open with How does someone become a stranger? presentation. Quickwrite about personal experience. Symbolism, unity of effect, Puritan life, and new vocabulary review. Symbolism examination activity at stations, inferring then matching symbols with abstract ideas. Read first half of story. Symbolism/making inferences modeling at midpoint. Read second half of story. Discussion and Quickwrite: What word choices and techniques built the plot and what inferences did you make about the impact of these choices? Holt McDougal Powernotes presentation Google Classroom Quizlet.com Symbolism matching game cards Holt McDougal American Literature book

Legalization of Marijuana Essay - 954 Words

Legalization of Marijuana The only way in which a human being can make some approach to knowing the whole of any subject is by hearing what can be said about it by persons of every variety of opinion and studying all modes in which in can be looked at by every character of mind. No wise man ever acquired his wisdom in any mode but this. - John Stuart Mill (Mill. 7). The topic of legalizing marijuana is a very conservational issue in American politics today. There are many good arguments both for and against legalization. But most important is that all of these arguments are based on facts. The Marijuana Tax Act of 1937, the act that effectively made marijuana illegal in the US, was based on the fact that marijuana caused†¦show more content†¦It is clear that our society cannot be both drug-free and free. (Grinspoon. 142) The war on drugs is not only eroding our civil liberties but is also wasting our tax money at a rate of almost 18 billion dollars a year(Lynch.153). Moreover, more than 300,000 people a year are arrested on marijuana charges, contributing to the clogging of our courts and overcrowding prisons. (Grinspoon. 142) All this is also costing tax payers money on top of the 18 billion a year. The war on drugs is a war within our homes, a war between our friends and family. From the early 1970s until present we have heard that marijuana destroyed brain cells, caused psychoses, lowered testosterone levels ad sperm counts, led to breast development in males... caused chromosome breakage and birth defects. (Ginspoon. 139) However not one of these claims could ever be proven and more and more people have grown to resent the governments deceiving propaganda. So far, not a single case of lung cancer, emphysema, or other significant pulmonary pathology attributable to cannabis use has been reported. (Grinspoon. 139) Furthermore, Marijuana has many medical benefits and has been proven to help those suffering from Chemotherapy nausea, glaucoma, chronic pain, epilepsy, migraine, and AIDS wasting syndrome. (Grinspoon 138) Also some people find it soShow MoreRelatedThe Legalization Of Marijuana Legalization1061 Words   |  5 PagesThe Legalization of Cannabis in Ohio Marijuana is a controversial topic all across the United States. Recently marijuana has been voted on, legalized, and denied legalization in multiple states. There are still more states trying to fight the green fight for marijuana. The fight for legalization hasn’t been an easy one for cannabis supporters; they have been fighting tooth and nail to make it happen. 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According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, â€Å"95 million Americans age 12 and older have tried pot at least once, and three out of every four illicit-drug users reported using marijuana within the previous 30 days† (ONDCP). The decriminalization and eve ntually legalization for the recreational use of marijuana will bring forth benefitsRead MoreThe Legalization Of Marijuana Legalization1282 Words   |  6 Pages On November 8th, 2016, the California Marijuana Legalization Initiative may be included on the ballot. The people of California will vote on whether to legalize the recreational use of cannabis for adults. The move targets at regulating the consumption of the drug and taxing it like other legalized drugs. California was the first state to legalize medical marijuana in 1996 (National Institute of Drug Abuse). 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However, the medical benefits of the drug seem on the process of chemical compounds as compared to the drug itself. Medical debates show that chemical compound in marijuana are the problem as compared to the plant. The said chemical compound af fects the mental and physical health of the personsRead MoreThe Legalization Of Marijuana Legalization996 Words   |  4 Pages the monetary gain of its legalization for most has been productive to say the least. For example, Denver Colorado is on track to more than triple the marijuana tax revenue this year alone. $44 million was collected in 2014. In July 2015, 73.5 million was collected, while 19.6 million went to schools. A place such as Chicago could really use the legalization to help with the school system infrastructure issues they have. With a deficit of over 1.1 billion marijuana sales could alleviate bothRead MoreLegalization of Marijuana1550 Words   |  7 PagesLegalization of Marijuana: Benefits and Statistics The topic of legalizing marijuana has been a topic of controversy for quite some time now not only throughout our local streets, but throughout the local and into the state government. The legalization of marijuana is such a controversial topic because some are for it and some are against it. People are for the legalization because of the great uses it has towards medicine, the money that could come from the taxation of legalized marijuana, andRead MoreLegalization of Marijuana972 Words   |  4 PagesOn January 1st the states of Colorado and Washington officially began the regulation of legal marijuana sales. Thousands of people from all over the country including tourists from Wisconsin, Ohio, Chicago, and even Georgia lined up out front of dispensaries to make a purchase. Recreational marijuana is being regulated and monitored like alcohol; you must be at least 21 years old to make a purchase. The drug, which is controversial in many states’ legislations, is currently l egal for medical useRead MoreThe Legalization of Marijuana628 Words   |  2 PagesThe Legalization of Marijuana Marijuana, the plant of the cannabis, has been around since the early 1900’s. Throughout history, marijuana has been used illegally, for both recreational and medical uses. Recently, marijuana has been used for medicinal purposes, like aiding HIV/AIDs patients, healing migraines and controlling nausea caused by chemotherapy. Today, there are currently 21 American states that have legalized medicinal marijuana including two states that have legalized recreational marijuana

Cbt Case Study Free Essays

string(31) " to control the panic attacks\." CBT – Case Study Identifying Information For the purposes of the case study the client will be called Jane. Jane is a 22 year old single white British female who lives with her parents in a house outside the city. She is heterosexual and has had a boyfriend for seven years. We will write a custom essay sample on Cbt Case Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now She feels unable to discuss her issues with her boyfriend. Her parents both have mental health issues and Jane does not feel able to talk to her mother about her problems. She has an older brother she has a good relationship who lives with his girlfriend, a four hour drive away. Jane is educated to degree level, having studied Criminology and is currently working part-time for her father managing his client accounts for a business he runs from home. A typical day involves organising all receipts and creating spreadsheets for each client’s accounts. Jane states she would like to get a full time job and be normal like her friends. Jane has a small circle of friends from university who she states have all gone onto full time employment. Jane also has a puppy she spends time looking after and taking for regular walks. Assessment Jane was referred following a health check at her GP surgery. She had been prescribed Citalopram 20mg by her GP for anxiety symptoms and panic attacks she had been having for two years. Jane has no previous contact with mental health services. Jane’s father had a diagnosis of Bi-Polar Disorder, her brother has Depression and her boyfriend has a diagnosis of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder which he is continuing treatment for. Jane’s anxiety/panic has increased over the past two years. She had read about Cognitive Behavioural Therapy on the Internet and was willing to see if it was help ease her anxiety symptoms. Jane stated that the problem started due to family issues in 2007. Her brother and father were estranged due to a financial disagreement and this resulted in Jane’s brother leaving the country with his girlfriend, causing Jane to become very distressed. Also during this time she was taking her final exams at University, Jane states this was when she experienced her first panic attack. She had spent the evening before her brother left the country, drinking alcohol with friends, she remembers feeling ‘hung-over’ the next day. While travelling in the car to the airport, with her brother and his girlfriend, Jane states she started to feel unwell, she found it difficult to breathe, felt hot, trapped and felt like she was going to faint. Jane stated she felt â€Å"embarrassed† and â€Å"stupid† and had since experienced other panic attacks and increased anxiety, anticipating panic attacks in social situations. Jane had reduced where she went to, finding herself unable to go anywhere she may have to meet new people. Her last panic attack happened when Jane visited her GP for a health check and fainted during the appointment, Jane has blood phobia and she stated she had not eaten since the day before and was extremely anxious about the any medical interventions. Jane believes it was a panic attack that caused her to faint. The GP prescribed her 20mg of Citalopram, a few weeks prior to her initial assessment with the therapist. When Jane and the therapist met for the initial session Jane described herself as feeling inadequate and as if she was trapped in a cycle of panic. Although Jane felt unhappy she had no suicidal ideation and she presented no risk to others. Jane stated she had become more anxious and that she had panic attacks at least twice a week. Prior to and during therapy, Jane was assessed using various measures. These enabled the therapist to formulate a hypothesis regarding the severity of the problem, also acting as a baseline, enabling the therapist and Jane to monitor progress throughout treatment. (Wells, 1997). The measures utilised in the initial assessment were a daily panic diary, Wells (1997) and a diary of obsessive- compulsive rituals, Wells (1997) a self rating scale completed by the client Jane. Other measures used were, The Panic Rating Scale (PRS) Wells (1997), the Social Phobia Scale, Wells (1997), used by the therapist to clarify which specific disorder was the main problem for Jane. Having collated information from the initial measures, a problem list was created so the therapist and Jane could decide what to focus on first. This list was based on Jane’s account of the worst problems which were given priority over those problems which were less distressing. Problem List 1. Anxiety/Panic attacks 2. Obsessive hand washing. 3. My relationship with my family. 4. Not having a full time job. 5. My relationship with my boyfriend Having collaboratively decided on the problem list, the therapist helped Jane reframe the problems into goals. As the problem list highlighted what was wrong, changing them into goals enabled Jane to approach her problems in a more focused way (Wells, 1997), the therapist discussed goals with Jane and she decided what she wanted to get from therapy. It was important for the therapist to ensure that any goals were realistic and achievable in the timeframe and this was conveyed to Jane (Padesky Greenberger, 1995). Jane wanted to reduce her anxiety and expressed these goals:- 1. To understand why I have panic attacks. 2. To have an anxiety free day. 3. To reduce the amount of time worrying . To reduce obsessive hand washing at home. Case Formulation Jane stated that for about a year she had been repeating certain behaviours, which she believed prevented her from having panic attacks. This involved Jane washing her hands and any surrounding objects at least twice. Jane had a fear of consuming alcohol/drugs/caffeine/artificial sweeteners, she stated she had had her first panic attack the day afte r drinking alcohol and had read that all these substances could increase her anxiety. Jane had not drunk alcohol for 18 months as she felt this caused her anxiety and made her nable to control the panic attacks. You read "Cbt Case Study" in category "Essay examples" Jane stated she feared that if any of these substances got on her hands and then into her mouth she would have a panic attack and faint. These beliefs increased Jane’s anxiety when Jane was exposed to any environment where these substances were present. This unfortunately was most of the time, Jane stated that every time she saw any of these substances consumed or even placed near her, she became anxious and had to wash her hands and any surrounding items which she may come into contact with again. These safety behaviours maintained the cycle of panic, Jane would always continue the routines that she believed prevented a panic attack. The worst case scenario for Jane was â€Å"the panic would never stop and I will go mad, causing my boyfriend to leave me†. Jane felt this would make everyone realise what she already knew, that she was worthless. Her last panic attack happened when Jane had visited her GP; this caused Jane feelings of shame. â€Å"There’s all these people achieving, doing great things and I can’t do the most basic things† The therapist used the Cognitive Model of Panic (Clark, 1986), initially developing the three key elements of the model to help socialise Jane to the thoughts, feelings and behaviour cycle (see diagram below) Cognitive Model of Panic Bodily sensations Emotional response Thought about sensation Clark (1986) Using a panic diary and a diary of obsessive-compulsive rituals, Jane was asked to keep a record of situations during the week where she felt anxious, and this was discussed in the next session. Jane stated she had not had any panic during the week, when discussing previous panic attacks during the session, Jane became anxious and the therapist used this incident to develop the following formulation. Heart beating fast/increase in body temperature Fear/dread I feel hot, I can’t control it Clark (1986) Jane stated she felt like she was sweating, she had difficulty breathing; felt faint, had feelings of not being here and felt like she was going crazy. All these symptoms suggested that Jane was experiencing a panic attack and Jane met the criteria for Panic Disorder, defined in the DSM IV and states that â€Å"panic attacks be recurrent and unexpected, at least one of the attacks be followed by at least one month of persistent concern about having additional attacks, worry about the implications or consequence of the attack, or a significant change in behaviour related to the attacks† (APA, 1994). During the sessions the therapist continued to socialise Jane to the model of panic (Clark, 1986); together Jane and the therapist looked at what kept the cycle going. The therapist continued to use the model formulation, with the addition of Jane’s catastrophic interpretation of bodily symptoms, to illustrate the connection between negative thoughts, emotion, physical symptoms. Social situation I will be unable to stay here Everyone will notice I am not coping I’m going to faint Sweating/breathing fast/dizzy Clark’s (1986) Cognitive Model of Panic. Progress of Treatment The therapist hypothesised that Jane’s symptoms continued due to Jane not understanding the physiological effects of anxiety. The results were a misinterpretation of what would happen to her while being anxious, and this maintained the panic cycle. Although Jane tried to avoid any anxiety by using safety behaviours, she eventually increased the anxiety she experienced. Session 1 After the initial assessment sessions, the therapist and Jane agreed to 8 sessions, with a review after 6 sessions. Jane and the therapist discussed that there may only be a small amount of progress or change during the sessions due to the complexity of Jane’s diagnosis and agreed to focus on understanding the cycle of panic (Clark, 1986) From the information gained from the formulation process, the therapist tried psycho education. The therapist was attempting to illicit a shift in Jane’s belief about what, how and why these symptoms were happening. The therapist discussed with Jane what she knew about anxiety and from this the therapist discovered that Jane was unsure of what anxiety was and the effects on the body. For the first few appointments the therapist knew it could be beneficial to concentrate on relaying information about anxiety, (Clark et al, 1989) focusing on Jane’s specific beliefs anxiety, the therapist wanted to try to reduce the problem by helping Jane recognise the connection between her symptoms. As Jane believed, â€Å"she was going mad†, the therapist was trying to help Jane understand the CBT model of anxiety and to alter Jane’s misunderstanding of the symptoms. The therapist and Jane discussed Jane’s belief that she would faint if she panicked, Jane had fixed beliefs about why she fainted. The therapist attempted to enable Jane to describe how her anxiety affected her during a ‘usual panic’. Instead Jane began to describe symptoms of social anxiety, this suggested to the therapist that the main problems could be a combination of /social phobia and obsessive behaviours; the following dialogue may help to illustrate this. T. When you begin to become anxious, what goes through your head? J. I need a backup plan; I need to know how to get out of there. Especially if it’s in an office, or a small room. T. What would happen if you did not get out? J. I would panic, and then pass out T. What would the reasons be for you to pass out? J. Because I was panicking. T. Have you passed out before when you have panicked? J. I have felt like it. T. So what sensations do you have when you’re panicking? J. The feeling rises up, I feel hot and I can’t see straight. I get red flashes in front of my eyes, like a warning. My vision goes hazy. I think everyone is looking at me. T. Do you think other people can see this? J. Yes. T. What do you think they see? J. That I’m struggling and I cannot cope or, I try to get out of the situation by pretending I feel ill before they notice. T. What would they notice, what would be different about you? J. I stick out like a beacon, I’m sweating, loads of sweat and my face is bright red. T. How red would your face be, as red as that â€Å"No Smoking† sign on the wall? J. Yes! I’m dripping with sweat and my eyes are really staring, feels like they stick out like in a cartoon, it’s ridiculous. T. How long before you would leave the situation? J. Sometimes the feeling goes, like I can control it. But I could not leave. There would be a stigma and then I could not go back, the anxiety would increase in that environment or somewhere similar. The therapist persisted with this example and tried to use guided discovery to help Jane get a more balanced view of the situation. (Padesky and Greenberger, 1995) T. So you would not go back? J. I would if I felt safe, like with my boyfriend or I could leave whenever I wanted to. It’s the last straw if I have to go. It makes it even harder. T. You say that sometimes it goes away. What’s different about then and times when you have to leave? J. It’s like I just know I have to leave. T. What do you think may happen if you stay with the feelings? J. That I will pass out. T. hat would that mean if you passed out? J. It would be the ultimate. It would mean that I could not cope with the situation. T. If you could not cope what would that mean? J. I can’t function, I can’t do anything. I‘m just no use. T. How much do you believe that? Can you rate it out of 100%? J. Now. About 60% if I did faint it would be about 100% T. Have you ever fainted due t o the sensations you have described to me? J. No. I have fainted because I’m squeamish. I don’t like blood. Or having any kind of tests at the GP. T. So do I understand you? You have never fainted due to the panic sensations? J. No. I’ve felt like it. T. So you’ve never passed out due to the symptoms? What do you make that? J. I don’t know, that would mean that what I believe is stupid. It’s hard to get my head around it. Session 2-3 The therapist used a social phobia/panic rating scale measures to ascertain the main problem; this was increasingly difficult as throughout each session the patient expanded on her symptoms. The therapist managed to understand that the patient avoided most social situations due to her beliefs about certain substances; this caused the obsessive hand-washing. This then had an impact on Jane’s ability to go anywhere in case she could not wash herself or objects around her. Jane also believed fainting from blood phobia had the same physical effects as panic, and she would faint if she panicked. It was complicated and the therapist attempted to draw out a formulation. I SEE A PERSON DRINKING ALCOHOL IT’S GOING TO GET ON MY HANDS AND INTO MY MOUTH I FEEL SICK, I’M GOING TO FAINT I FEEL DREAD, I FEEL ANXIOUS, SWEATING I MUST WASH MY HANDS TO STOP THE PANIC GETTING WORSE. Session 4 The formulation shows the extent of Jane’s panic and how her safety behaviours were impacting on all aspects of her life. The therapist attempted again to use information about the causes of anxiety and its effects on the body. The therapist explained what happens when you faint due to blood phobia, this was an attempt to supply Jane with counter evidence for her catastrophic interpretations of her panic. The therapist also used evidence to contrast the effects on the body when fainting and when panicking. After two sessions, the therapist continued to provide and attempted to relay the facts about the nature of anxiety/panic/fainting with the inclusion of behavioural experiments. Educational procedures are a valid part of overall cognitive restructuring strategies, incorporated with questioning evidence for misinterpretations and behavioural experiments (Wells, 1997) The therapist asked Jane to explain to the therapist the function/effects of adrenalin, to see if Jane was beginning to understand and if there had been any shift in her beliefs about panic. The following dialogue may help to illustrate the difficulties the therapist encountered; T. Over the last few sessions, we have been discussing anxiety and the function of adrenalin. Do you understand the physical changes we have looked at? Does it make sense to you? J. Yes. Something has clicked inside my head. I feel less insane now, I understand more about what’s going on. It makes things a little bit easier, but it takes time for it to sink in. T. Do you think you could explain to me what you understand about anxiety/adrenalin? J. As I interpret it is, I like to think of it as, â€Å"I’m not anxious it’s just my adrenalin, It’s just the effects of adrenalin effecting my body† but it’s hard to get from there, to accepting the adrenalin is not going to harm me. I know logically it’s not. But it’s still hard. T. That’s great you’re beginning to question what you have believed and are thinking there may be other explanations for your symptoms. J. Yes. But I still think it’s to do with luck. I have good or bad luck each day and that predicts whether I have a panic or not. I think I’ll be unlucky soon. Session 5-6 The therapist continued to try use behavioural experiments during the sessions to provide further evidence to try to alter Jane’s beliefs about anxiety. The therapist agreed with Jane that they would imitate all the symptoms of panic. Making the room hot, exercising to increase heart rate and body temperature, hyperventilation (ten minutes) Focusing on breathing/swallowing. This continued for most of session 5. As neither the therapist nor Jane fainted, they discussed this and Jane stated it was different in the session than when she with other people. Jane also stated she felt safe and trusted the therapist, she did not believe she could be strong enough to try the experiments alone, as it was â€Å"too scary† The therapist asked Jane to draw a picture of how she felt and put them on the diagram of a person, this then was used to compare with anxiety symptoms, while talking through them with the therapist. The therapist and Jane created a survey about fainting and Jane took this away as homework to gain further evidence. The survey included 6 different questions about fainting e. g. – What people knew about fainting/how they would feel about seeing someone faint, etc. Treatment Outcome The treatment with Jane continues. The next session will be the 6th and there will be a review of progress and any improvements. There has been no improvement in measures as noted yet. The therapist intends to use a panic rating scale (PRS) Wells, (1997) during the next session. The therapist will continue to see Jane for two more sess ions, looking at what Jane has found helpful/unhelpful. Discussion Overall the therapist found the therapy unsuccessful. Although Jane stated she found it helpful, it was difficult for the therapist to see the progress due to the many layers of complexity of Jane’s diagnosis. The therapist has grown more confident in the CBT process and understands that as a trainee, the therapist tried to incorporate all the new skills within each session. The therapist was disappointed that they were unable to guide Jane through the therapy process with a better result. The therapist would have like to have been able to fully establish an understanding of Jane’s complex symptoms earlier on in the therapy. The therapist believes that Jane’s symptoms were very complex and the therapist may have been more successful with a client with a less complicated diagnosis. The therapist would then be able to gain more information via the appropriate measures to enable the formulations in a concise manner. This has been a huge learning curve for the therapist and has encouraged them to seek out continuing CBT supervision within the therapist’s workplace. This is essential to continue the development of the therapist’s skills. The therapist feels that although this has not had the outcome that the therapist would have wanted, it has been a positive experience for Jane. There appeared to be a successful therapeutic relationship, Jane appeared comfortable and able to communicate what her problems were to the therapist from the beginning of therapy. The therapist hopes this will encourage Jane to engage with further CBT therapy in the future and the therapist over the final session hopes to be able to support Jane in creating a therapy blueprint, reviewing what Jane has found helpful. Certificate in CBT September – December 2009 CBT Case Study Panic/Social Phobia/OCD WORD COUNT 3,400 References APA (1994). Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Revised, 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Padesky, C. A Greenberger, D. (1995). Clinicians Guide to Mind Over Mood. New York: Guilford Padesky, C. A Greenberger, D. (1995). Mind Over Mood. New York: Guilford Wells, A (1997). Cognitive Therapy of Anxiety Disorders. Chichester, UK: Wiley How to cite Cbt Case Study, Free Case study samples

Kantian Philosophy Of Morality Essays - Kantianism,

Kantian Philosophy of Morality Kantian philosophy outlines the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical Imperative as a method for determining morality of actions. This formula is a two part test. First, one creates a maxim and considers whether the maxim could be a universal law for all rational beings. Second, one determines whether rational beings would will it to be a universal law. Once it is clear that the maxim passes both prongs of the test, there are no exceptions. As a paramedic faced with a distraught widow who asks whether her late husband suffered in his accidental death, you must decide which maxim to create and based on the test which action to perform. The maxim "when answering a widow's inquiry as to the nature and duration of her late husbands death, one should always tell the truth regarding the nature of her late husband's death" (M1) passes both parts of the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical Imperative. Consequently, according to Kant, M1 is a moral action. The initial stage of the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical Imperative requires that a maxim be universally applicable to all rational beings. M1 succeeds in passing the first stage. We can easily imagine a world in which paramedics always answer widows truthfully when queried. Therefore, this maxim is logical and everyone can abide by it without causing a logical impossibility. The next logical step is to apply the second stage of the test. The second requirement is that a rational being would will this maxim to become a universal law. In testing this part, you must decide whether in every case, a rational being would believe that the morally correct action is to tell the truth. First, it is clear that the widow expects to know the truth. A lie would only serve to spare her feelings if she believed it to be the truth. Therefore, even people who would consider lying to her, must concede that the correct and expected action is to tell the truth. By asking she has already decided, good or bad, that she must know the truth. What if telling the truth brings the widow to the point where she commits suicide, however? Is telling her the truth then a moral action although its consequence is this terrible response? If telling the widow the truth drives her to commit suicide, it seems like no rational being would will the maxim to become a universal law. The suicide is, however, a consequence of your initial action. The suicide has no bearing, at least for the Categorical Imperative, on whether telling the truth is moral or not. Likewise it is impossible to judge whether upon hearing the news, the widow would commit suicide. Granted it is a possibility, but there are a multitude of alternative choices that she could make and it is impossible to predict each one. To decide whether rational being would will a maxim to become a law, the maxim itself must be examined rationally and not its consequences. Accordingly, the maxim passes the second test. Conversely, some people might argue that in telling the widow a lie, you spare her years of torment and suffering. These supporters of "white lies" feel the maxim should read, "When facing a distraught widow, you should lie in regards to the death of her late husband in order to spare her feelings." Applying the first part of the Universal Law Formation of the Categorical Imperative, it appears that this maxim is a moral act. Certainly, a universal law that prevents the feelings of people who are already in pain from being hurt further seems like an excellent universal law. Unfortunately for this line of objection, the only reason a lie works is because the person being lied to believes it to be the truth. In a situation where every widow is lied to in order to spare her feelings, then they never get the truth. This leads to a logical contradiction because no one will believe a lie if they know it a lie and the maxim fails. Perhaps the die-hard liar can regroup and test a narrower maxim. If it is narrow enough so that it